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Revisiting vernacular technique: Engineering a low environmental impact earth stabilisation method
(2022)
The major drawbacks of earth as a construction material — such as its low water stability and moderate strength — have led mankind to stabilize earth. Different civilizations developed vernacular techniques mainly focussing on lime, pozzolan or gypsum stabilization. Recently, cement has become the most commonly used additive in earth stabilization as it improves the strength and durability of plain earth. Also, it is a familiar and globally available construction material. However, using cement as an additive reduces the environmental advantages of earth and run counter to global targets regarding the reduction of CO2 emissions. Alternatives to cement stabilization are currently neither efficient enough to reduce its environmental impact nor allow the possibility of obtaining better results than those of cement. As such, this thesis deals with the rediscovery of a reverse engineering approach for a low environmental impact earth stabilization technique, aiming to replace cement in earth stabilization.
The first step in the method consists in a comprehensive review of earth stabilization with regards to earthen building standards and soil classification, which allows us to identify the research gap. The review showed that there is great potential in using other additives which result in similar improvements as those achieved by cement. However, the studies that have been conducted so far either use expansive soils, which are not suitable for earth constructions or artificial pozzolans that indirectly contribute to CO2 emissions. This is the main research gap.
The key concept for the development in the second step of the method is to combine vernacular additives to both improve the strength and durability of plain earth and to reduce the CO2 emissions. Various earth-mixtures were prepared and both development and performance tests were done to investigate the performance of this technique. The laboratory analyses on mix-design have proven a high durability and the results show a remarkable increase in strength performance. Furthermore, a significant reduction in CO2 emissions in comparison to cement stabilization could be shown.
The third step of the method discusses the results drawn from the experimental programme. In addition, the potential of the new earth mixture with regards to its usability in the field of building construction and architectural design is further elaborated on.
The method used in this study is the first of its kind that allows investors to avoid the very time-consuming processes such as finding a suitable source for soil excavation and soil classification. The developed mixture has significant workability and suitability for production of stabilized earthen panels — the very first of its kind. Such a panel is practically feasible, reasonable, and could be integrated into earthen building standards in general and in particular to DIN 18948, which is related to earthen boards and published in 2018.
Although it is impractical to avert subsequent natural disasters, advances in simulation science and seismological studies make it possible to lessen the catastrophic damage. There currently exists in many urban areas a large number of structures, which are prone to damage by earthquakes. These were constructed without the guidance of a national seismic code, either before it existed or before it was enforced. For instance, in Istanbul, Turkey, as a high seismic area, around 90% of buildings are substandard, which can be generalized into other earthquakeprone regions in Turkey. The reliability of this building stock resulting from earthquake-induced collapse is currently uncertain. Nonetheless, it is also not feasible to perform a detailed seismic vulnerability analysis on each building as a solution to the scenario, as it will be too complicated and expensive. This indicates the necessity of a reliable, rapid, and computationally easy method for seismic vulnerability assessment, commonly known as Rapid Visual Screening (RVS). In RVS methodology, an observational survey of buildings is performed, and according to the data collected during the visual inspection, a structural score is calculated without performing any structural calculations to determine the expected damage of a building and whether the building needs detailed assessment. Although this method might save time and resources due to the subjective/qualitative judgments of experts who performed the inspection, the evaluation process is dominated by vagueness and uncertainties, where the vagueness can be handled adequately through the fuzzy set theory but do not cover all sort of uncertainties due to its crisp membership functions. In this study, a novel method of rapid visual hazard safety assessment of buildings against earthquake is introduced in which an interval type-2 fuzzy logic system (IT2FLS) is used to cover uncertainties. In addition, the proposed method provides the possibility to evaluate the earthquake risk of the building by considering factors related to the building importance and exposure. A smartphone app prototype of the method has been introduced. For validation of the proposed method, two case studies have been selected, and the result of the analysis presents the robust efficiency of the proposed method.
This study permits a reliability analysis to solve the mechanical behaviour issues existing in the current structural design of fabric structures. Purely predictive material models are highly desirable to facilitate an optimized design scheme and to significantly reduce time and cost at the design stage, such as experimental characterization.
The present study examined the role of three major tasks; a) single-objective optimization, b) sensitivity analyses and c) multi-objective optimization on proposed weave structures for woven fabric composites. For single-objective optimization task, the first goal is to optimize the elastic properties of proposed complex weave structure under unit cells basis based on periodic boundary conditions.
We predict the geometric characteristics towards skewness of woven fabric composites via Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) and a parametric study. We also demonstrate the effect of complex weave structures on the fray tendency in woven fabric composites via tightness evaluation. We utilize a procedure which does not require a numerical averaging process for evaluating the elastic properties of woven fabric composites. The fray tendency and skewness of woven fabrics depends upon the behaviour of the floats which is related to the factor of weave. Results of this study may suggest a broader view for further research into the effects of complex weave structures or may provide an alternative to the fray and skewness problems of current weave structure in woven fabric composites.
A comprehensive study is developed on the complex weave structure model which adopts the dry woven fabric of the most potential pattern in singleobjective optimization incorporating the uncertainties parameters of woven fabric composites. The comprehensive study covers the regression-based and variance-based sensitivity analyses. The second task goal is to introduce the fabric uncertainties parameters and elaborate how they can be incorporated into finite element models on macroscopic material parameters such as elastic modulus and shear modulus of dry woven fabric subjected to uni-axial and biaxial deformations. Significant correlations in the study, would indicate the need for a thorough investigation of woven fabric composites under uncertainties parameters. The study describes here could serve as an alternative to identify effective material properties without prolonged time consumption and expensive experimental tests.
The last part focuses on a hierarchical stochastic multi-scale optimization approach (fine-scale and coarse-scale optimizations) under geometrical uncertainties parameters for hybrid composites considering complex weave structure. The fine-scale optimization is to determine the best lamina pattern that maximizes its macroscopic elastic properties, conducted by EA under the following uncertain mesoscopic parameters: yarn spacing, yarn height, yarn width and misalignment of yarn angle. The coarse-scale optimization has been carried out to optimize the stacking sequences of symmetric hybrid laminated composite plate with uncertain mesoscopic parameters by employing the Ant Colony Algorithm (ACO). The objective functions of the coarse-scale optimization are to minimize the cost (C) and weight (W) of the hybrid laminated composite plate considering the fundamental frequency and the buckling load factor as the design constraints.
Based on the uncertainty criteria of the design parameters, the appropriate variation required for the structural design standards can be evaluated using the reliability tool, and then an optimized design decision in consideration of cost can be subsequently determined.
Gashochdruckleitungen aus Stahl werden mit Hilfe eines deterministischen Sicherheitskonzeptes bemessen. Im unveränderten Bemessungszustand und im bestimmungsgemäßem Betrieb ist die statische Tragfähigkeit der Gashochdruckleitungen gegeben.
Mit den Jahren unterliegen Gashochdruckleitungen aus Stahl geometrischen Veränderungen, die häufig durch Korrosion hervorgerufen werden. Die Beurteilung der statischen Tragfähigkeit erfolgt dann unter Berücksichtigung dieser geometrischen Änderung.
Deterministische Sicherheitsbeiwerte der Bemessung neuer Gashochdruckleitungen können für die Bemessung bestehender korrosionsgeschädigter Gashochdruckleitungen nicht herangezogen werden, da diese einen definierten Beanspruchungs- und Geometriezustand unterstellen, welcher durch den geometrischen Einfluss der Korrosion so nicht mehr besteht.
Die Arbeit befasst sich mit der Ermittlung deterministischer Sicherheitsbeiwerte für die Bemessung korrosionsgeschädigter Gashochdruckleitungen auf Basis von Versagenswahrscheinlichkeiten und stellt ein Anwendungskonzept zu deren Nutzung vor.
Railway systems are highly competitive compared with other means of transportation because of their distinct advantages in speed, convenience and safety. Therefore, the demand for railway transportation is increasing around the world. Constructing railway tracks and related engineering structures in areas with loose or soft cohesive subgrade usually leads to problems, such as excessive settlement, deformation and instability. Several remedies have been proposed to avoid or reduce such problems, including the replacement of soft soil and the construction of piles or stone columns.
This thesis aims to expand the geotechnical knowledge of how to improve subgrade ballasted railway tracks, using stone columns and numerical modeling for the railway infrastructure. Three aspects are considered: i) railway track dynamics modeling and validation by field measurements, ii) modeling and parametric studies on stone columns, and iii) studies on the linear and non-linear behavior of stone columns under the dynamic load of trains.
The first step of this research was to develop a reliable numerical model of a railway track. The finite element method in a time domain was used for either a 2D plane strain or 3D analysis. Individual methods for modeling a train load in 2D and 3D were implemented and are discussed in this thesis. The developed loading method was validated with three different railway tracks using obtained vibration measurements. Later, these numerical models were used to analyze the influence of stone column length and train speed in the stress field.
The performance of the treated ground depends on various parameters, such as the strength of stone columns, spacing, length and diameter of the columns. Therefore, the second step was devoted to a parameter study of stone columns as a unit cell with an axisymmetric condition. The results showed that even short stone columns were effective for settlement reduction, and area of replacement was the main influential parameter in their performance.
The third part of this thesis focuses on a hypothetical railway-track response to the passage of various train speeds and the influence of stone-column length. The stress-strain response of subgrade is analyzed under either an elastic–perfectly plastic or advanced constitutive model. The non-linear soil response in the finite element method and the impact of train speed and stone column length on railway tracks are also evaluated. Moreover, the reductions of induced vibration – in both a horizontal and a vertical direction – after improvement are investigated.
Gashochdruckleitungen aus Stahl werden mit Hilfe eines deterministischen Sicherheitskonzeptes bemessen. Im unveränderten Bemessungszustand und im bestimmungsgemäßem Betrieb ist die statische Tragfähigkeit der Gashochdruckleitungen gegeben.
Mit den Jahren unterliegen Gashochdruckleitungen aus Stahl geometrischen Veränderungen, die häufig durch Korrosion hervorgerufen werden. Die Beurteilung der statischen Tragfähigkeit erfolgt dann unter Berücksichtigung dieser geometrischen Änderung.
Deterministische Sicherheitsbeiwerte der Bemessung neuer Gashochdruckleitungen können für die Bemessung bestehender korrosionsgeschädigter Gashochdruckleitungen nicht herangezogen werden, da diese einen definierten Beanspruchungs- und Geometriezustand unterstellen, welcher durch den geometrischen Einfluss der Korrosion so nicht mehr besteht.
Die Arbeit befasst sich mit der Ermittlung deterministischer Sicherheitsbeiwerte für die Bemessung korrosionsgeschädigter Gashochdruckleitungen auf Basis von Versagenswahrscheinlichkeiten und stellt ein Anwendungskonzept zu deren Nutzung vor.
Den Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit bilden die konstruktive Entwicklung und die wissenschaftliche Untersuchung des Tragverhaltens von Kopplungselementen für den Ingenieur¬holzbau. Die neu entwickelten Verbindungen bestehen bevorzugt aus Stahlteilen mit Gewindeanschluss und werden mit einem Polymerverguss im Holz verankert. Die Kopplungselemente gestatten die einfache montagegerechte Verbindung von Holzbauteilen untereinander oder zu anderen Bauweisen. Sie nehmen die Zug- oder Drucklast axial auf und gewährleisten eine leistungsfähige und schlupf¬freie Verbindung zum Holz. Für den Verguss wird ein mineralisch gefülltes Epoxidharz mit sehr guten Klebeeigenschaften gegenüber Holz und den meisten üblichen Baustoffen verwendet.
Im Holz werden für die Verankerung der Kopplungselemente Bohrungen vorgesehen, die sich sowohl aus technologischen Gründen als auch für eine gleichmäßige Spannungsverteilung vorteilhaft erweisen. Der Durchmesser der Bohrung ist gegenüber dem Verbindungselement deutlich größer, wodurch die Verbindungsfläche zum Holz bei konstanter Länge ansteigt. Die Vergrößerung der Fugen zwischen dem Verbindungselement und der Holzwandung von 7 mm auf 17 mm führt bei konstanter Einbindetiefe und gleichem Durchmesser des Verbin¬dungsmittels zu einer Laststeigerung von über 20 %. Die größere Vergussfuge gewährleistet darüber hinaus eine Vergleichmäßigung der Spannungen innerhalb der Verbindung, den Ein¬satz von frei geformten Verbindungselementen und eine Vereinfachung der Herstellung.
Die Kopplungselemente sind für den Einsatz in Zug- oder Druckstößen ebenso geeignet wie für biegesteife Anschlüsse axial verbundener Biegeträger oder Rahmenecken. Sie können werkseitig im Holzbauteil vorgesehen oder als direkte Verbindung auf der Baustelle vergossen werden. Für die Baupraxis wird durch den Einsatz des schwindarmen Verguss-materials mit hoher Klebewirkung eine Bandbreite an Anwendungen vom Toleranzausgleich über Schubbewehrung bis zum Druck-, Zug- oder Biegeanschluss geboten.
Phase Field Modeling for Fracture with Applications to Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Materials
(2017)
The thesis presents an implementation including different applications of a variational-based approach for gradient type standard dissipative solids. Phase field model for brittle fracture is an application of the variational-based framework for gradient type solids. This model allows the prediction of different crack topologies and states. Of significant concern is the application of theoretical and numerical formulation of the phase field modeling into the commercial finite element software Abaqus in 2D and 3D. The fully coupled incremental variational formulation of phase field method is implemented by using the UEL and UMAT subroutines of Abaqus. The phase field method
considerably reduces the implementation complexity of fracture problems as it removes the need for numerical tracking of discontinuities in the displacement field that are characteristic of discrete crack methods. This is accomplished by replacing the sharp discontinuities with a scalar damage phase field representing the diffuse crack topology wherein the amount of diffusion is controlled by a regularization parameter. The nonlinear coupled system consisting of the linear momentum equation and a diffusion type equation governing the phase field evolution is solved simultaneously via a Newton-
Raphson approach. Post-processing of simulation results to be used as visualization
module is performed via an additional UMAT subroutine implemented in the standard Abaqus viewer.
In the same context, we propose a simple yet effective algorithm to initiate and propagate cracks in 2D geometries which is independent of both particular constitutive laws and specific element technology and dimension. It consists of a localization limiter in the form of the screened Poisson equation with, optionally, local mesh refinement. A staggered scheme for standard equilibrium and screened Cauchy equations is used. The remeshing part of the algorithm consists of a sequence of mesh subdivision and element erosion steps. Element subdivision is based on edge split operations using a
given constitutive quantity (either damage or void fraction). Mesh smoothing makes use of edge contraction as function of a given constitutive quantity such as the principal stress or void fraction. To assess the robustness and accuracy of this algorithm, we use both quasi-brittle benchmarks and ductile tests.
Furthermore, we introduce a computational approach regarding mechanical loading in microscale on an inelastically deforming composite material. The nanocomposites material of fully exfoliated clay/epoxy is shaped to predict macroscopic elastic and fracture related material parameters based on their fine–scale features. Two different configurations of polymer nanocomposites material (PNCs) have been studied. These configurations are fully bonded PNCs and PNCs with an interphase zone formation between the matrix and the clay reinforcement. The representative volume element of PNCs specimens with different clay weight contents, different aspect ratios, and different
interphase zone thicknesses are generated by adopting Python scripting. Different constitutive models are employed for the matrix, the clay platelets, and the interphase zones. The brittle fracture behavior of the epoxy matrix and the interphase zones material are modeled using the phase field approach, whereas the stiff silicate clay platelets of the composite are designated as a linear elastic material. The comprehensive study investigates the elastic and fracture behavior of PNCs composites, in addition to predict Young’s modulus, tensile strength, fracture toughness, surface energy dissipation, and cracks surface area in the composite for different material parameters, geometry, and interphase zones properties and thicknesses.
Methods for model quality assessment are aiming to find the most appropriate model with respect to accuracy and computational effort for a structural system under investigation. Model error estimation techniques can be applied for this purpose when kinematical models are investigated. They are counted among the class of white box models, which means that the model hierarchy and therewith the best model is known. This thesis gives an overview of discretisation error estimators. Deduced from these, methods for model error estimation are presented. Their general goal is to make a prediction of the inaccuracies that are introduced using the simpler model without knowing the solution of a more complex model. This information can be used to steer an adaptive process. Techniques for linear and non-linear problems as well as global and goal-oriented errors are introduced. The estimation of the error in local quantities is realised by solving a dual problem, which serves as a weight for the primal error. So far, such techniques have mainly been applied in
material modelling and for dimensional adaptivity. Within the scope of this thesis, available model error estimators are adapted for an application to kinematical models. Their applicability is tested regarding the question of whether a geometrical non-linear calculation is necessary or not. The analysis is limited to non-linear estimators due to the structure of the underlying differential equations. These methods often involve simplification, e.g linearisations. It is investigated to which extent such assumptions lead to meaningful results, when applied to kinematical models.
Bridge vibration due to traffic loading has been a subject of extensive research in the last decades. The focus of such research has been to develop solution algorithms and investigate responses or behaviors of interest. However, proving the quality and reliability of the model output in structural engineering has become a topic of increasing importance. Therefore, this study is an attempt to extend concepts of uncertainty and sensitivity analyses to assess the dynamic response of a coupled model in bridge engineering considering time-dependent vehicular loading. A setting for the sensitivity analysis is proposed, which enables performing the sensitivity analysis considering random stochastic processes. The classical and proposed sensitivity settings are used to identify the relevant input parameters and models that have the most influence on the variance of the dynamic response. The sensitivity analysis exercises the model itself and extracts results without the need for measurements or reference solutions; however, it does not offer a means of ranking the coupled models studied. Therefore, concepts of total uncertainty are employed to rank the coupled models studied according to their fitness in describing the dynamic problem.
The proposed procedures are applied in two examples to assess the output of coupled subsystems and coupled partial models in bridge engineering considering the passage of a heavy vehicle at various speeds.